how strong is graphene

[2] Hole and electron mobilities are nearly the same. [235] A film of graphene that had been soaked in solvent to make it swell and become malleable was overlaid on an underlying substrate "former". 3 studied the effect of grain size on the properties of polycrystalline graphene, by modelling the grain patches using Voronoi construction. [265], Burning a graphite oxide coated DVD produced a conductive graphene film (1,738 siemens per meter) and specific surface area (1,520 square meters per gram) that was highly resistant and malleable. The term "graphene" was used again in 1987 to describe single sheets of graphite as a constituent of graphite intercalation compounds,[39] which can be seen as crystalline salts of the intercalant and graphene. {\displaystyle 4e^{2}/h} Graphene's band gap can be tuned from 0 to 0.25eV (about 5 micrometre wavelength) by applying voltage to a dual-gate bilayer graphene field-effect transistor (FET) at room temperature. h Graphene is a zero-gap semiconductor, because its conduction and valence bands meet at the Dirac points. This is the same type of bonding seen in carbon nanotubes and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, and (partially) in fullerenes and glassy carbon. N = The sets give graphene a valley degeneracy of gv = 2. {\displaystyle \nu =3} This dispersion is supposedly suitable for advanced composites,[337][338] paints and coatings, lubricants, oils and functional fluids, capacitors and batteries, thermal management applications, display materials and packaging, solar cells, inks and 3D-printers' materials, and barriers and films. Graphene looks like a step in the direction to developing a building material strong enough. Webgraphene, a two-dimensional form of crystalline carbon, either a single layer of carbon atoms forming a honeycomb (hexagonal) lattice or several coupled layers of this honeycomb structure. Epitaxial graphene may be coupled to surfaces weakly enough (by the active valence electrons that create Van der Waals forces) to retain the two dimensional electronic band structure of isolated graphene. [21][22] In 1916, Peter Debye and Paul Scherrer determined the structure of graphite by powder X-ray diffraction. studied twisted trilayer graphene when is equal to the magic angle of approximately 1.6 the angle at which the system is expected to enter the strong-coupling regime. with the nearest-neighbor ( orbitals) hopping energy 0 2.8eV and the lattice constant a 2.46. [196][311] More recent works demonstrated the use of mixed plastic waste, waste rubber tires, and pyrolysis ash as carbon feedstocks. [287][288], In 2014, a two-step roll-to-roll manufacturing process was announced. [306], Supersonic acceleration of droplets through a Laval nozzle was used to deposit reduced graphene-oxide on a substrate. The Casimir effect is an interaction between disjoint neutral bodies provoked by the fluctuations of the electrodynamical vacuum. The GBs in this model consisted of heptagon, pentagon, and hexagon, as well as squares, octagons, and vacancies. An arrangement that slightly raises the energy of an electron on atom A relative to atom B gives it a positive mass, while an arrangement that raises the energy of atom B produces a negative electron mass. [208] Using paper-making techniques on dispersed, oxidized and chemically processed graphite in water, the monolayer flakes form a single sheet and create strong bonds. This was the best possible resolution for 1960 TEMs. [149], The (two-dimensional) density of graphene is 0.763mg per square meter. [26] Its structure was determined from single-crystal diffraction in 1924. Multi-Parametric Surface Plasmon Resonance was used to characterize both thickness and refractive index of chemical-vapor-deposition (CVD)-grown graphene films. It's only 10% the weight of steel but has has In 2013 a group of Polish scientists presented a production unit that allows the manufacture of continuous monolayer sheets. 3 The balls cracked open upon impact, and the resulting unzipped cages then bond together to form a graphene film.[262]. y [54] Recent quantitative estimates of aromatic stabilization and limiting size derived from the enthalpies of hydrogenation (Hhydro) agree well with the literature reports.[56]. To characterize the morphology of SGB in the composite, the sample was Graphene, flat carbon nanosheets, has generated huge activity in many areas of science and engineering due to its unprecedented physical and chemical properties. When using thionyl chloride, acyl chloride groups result, which can then form aliphatic and aromatic amides with a reactivity conversion of around 7080%. [29][69] Since an elementary cell of the lattice has a basis of two atoms, the wave function has an effective 2-spinor structure. [205][206], Heating silicon carbide (SiC) to high temperatures (1100C) under low pressures (c. 106 torr, or 104 Pa) reduces it to graphene. [260][261], In 2014, carbon nanotube-reinforced graphene was made via spin coating and annealing functionalized carbon nanotubes. It has been noted that a perfect graphene can withstand about 100 Gigapascals ( 14 million pounds per square inch) of force before it breaks. [2] These anomalies are present not only at extremely low temperatures but also at room temperature, i.e. [253] Restacking is an issue with this technique unless solvents with appropriate surface energy are used (e.g. Previous image. h Shear exfoliation is another method which by using rotor-stator mixer the scalable production of the defect-free Graphene has become possible. The conduction and valence bands, respectively, correspond to the different signs. [243], Isolated 2D crystals cannot be grown via chemical synthesis beyond small sizes even in principle, because the rapid growth of phonon density with increasing lateral size forces 2D crystallites to bend into the third dimension. Room temperature treatment of SLGO with carbodiimides leads to the collapse of the individual sheets into star-like clusters that exhibited poor subsequent reactivity with amines (c. 35% conversion of the intermediate to the final amide). is the vector of the Pauli matrices, 4 K The two sets are labeled K and K'. In all cases, graphene must bond to a substrate to retain its two-dimensional shape.[19]. 2 In ABC trilayer graphene, three graphene sheets are stacked at the same angle and slightly offset from each other, like layered slices of cheese. They found that the elastic stiffness is identical and strength is only slightly lower than those in pristine graphene. It can happen again with little warning. Based on a typical open and close aperture z-scan measurement, graphene possesses a giant nonlinear Kerr coefficient of 107cm2W1, almost nine orders of magnitude larger than that of bulk dielectrics. The microwave saturable absorption in graphene demonstrates the possibility of graphene microwave and terahertz photonics devices, such as a microwave saturable absorber, modulator, polarizer, microwave signal processing and broad-band wireless access networks. SITM use a high energy interface, such as oil and water, to exfoliate graphite to graphene. show that placing hexagonal boron nitride (h-BN) in contact with graphene can alter the potential felt at atom A versus atom B enough that the electrons develop a mass and accompanying band gap of about 30 meV [0.03 Electron Volt(eV)]. [170] Second, in 2013, Z. [42] Cao et al. While they also noted that crack is typically initiated at the triple junctions, they found that as the grain size decreases, the yield strength of graphene increases. It is about 1,000 times stronger than steel, but it is also about 1,000 times lighter. h [147], Despite its 2-D nature, graphene has 3 acoustic phonon modes. [236] Features vary from 3.5 to 50 m. [321] Even though these analytical models and methods can provide results for several canonical problems for benchmarking purposes, many practical problems involving graphene, such as design of arbitrarily shaped electromagnetic devices, are analytically intractable. [146] In addition, the ballistic thermal conductance of graphene is shown to give the lower limit of the ballistic thermal conductances, per unit circumference, length of carbon nanotubes. 2 2 "[47][48][46] Their publication, and the surprisingly easy preparation method that they described, sparked a "graphene gold rush". [144][145], Potential for this high conductivity can be seen by considering graphite, a 3D version of graphene that has basal plane thermal conductivity of over a 1000Wm1K1 (comparable to diamond). However, liquid cascade centrifugation can be used to size select the suspensions and achieve monolayer enrichment. In January 2015, the first stable graphene device operation in air over several weeks was reported, for graphene whose surface was protected by aluminum oxide. Starting in the 1970s, C. Oshima and others described single layers of carbon atoms that were grown epitaxially on top of other materials. [117] This suggests that graphene may be a powerful nonlinear Kerr medium, with the possibility of observing a variety of nonlinear effects, the most important of which is the soliton. [citation needed], Graphene is the strongest material ever tested,[10][11] with an intrinsic tensile strength of 130GPa (19,000,000psi) (with representative engineering tensile strength ~50-60GPa for stretching large-area freestanding graphene) and a Young's modulus (stiffness) close to 1TPa (150,000,000psi). bending into a cylindrical shape, which is its lower-energy state. / [335] Many other uses for graphene have been proposed or are under development, in areas including electronics, biological engineering, filtration, lightweight/strong composite materials, photovoltaics and energy storage. [133] However, for a gated graphene strip, an applied gate bias causing a Fermi energy shift much larger than kBT can cause the electronic contribution to increase and dominate over the phonon contribution at low temperatures. A particularly popular technique is the improved Hummer's method. [333], In 2013, Head announced their new range of graphene tennis racquets. | So can it get any stronger? [210] Graphene oxide flakes in polymers display enhanced photo-conducting properties. Based on experiments conducted on 3D printed models, researchers have determined that this material, with its distinct geometry, is actually stronger than graphene making it 10 times stronger than steel, with only 5 percent of its density. The graphene sheet thus displays a semimetallic (or zero-gap semiconductor) character, although the same cannot be said of a graphene sheet rolled into a carbon nanotube, due to its curvature. WebFirst principles study of alkali and alkaline earth metal ions adsorption and diffusion on penta-graphene (PG), which is a novel two dimensional (2D) carbon isomer composed of both sp(2) and sp(3) hybridized C-atoms. Graphene's unique optical properties produce an unexpectedly high opacity for an atomic monolayer in vacuum, absorbing 2.3% of light, from visible to infrared. [258], Graphene can be created by opening carbon nanotubes by cutting or etching. [230] The discovered nanostructure is a multilayer system of parallel hollow nanochannels located along the surface and having quadrangular cross-section. [200][201][202][203][204], Graphene nanoribbons ("nanostripes" in the "zig-zag"/"zigzag" orientation), at low temperatures, show spin-polarized metallic edge currents, which also suggests applications in the new field of spintronics. Studies of graphene monolayers on clean and hydrogen(H)-passivated silicon (100) (Si(100)/H) surfaces have been performed. WebGraphenea, a technology company specializing in the production of graphene, has released its financial figures for 2022, highlighting an impressive growth rate and the successful [268] Hydrogen cations, dissolved in molten lithium chloride, can be discharged on cathodically polarized graphite rods, which then intercalate, peeling graphene sheets. It is also flexible, [106] Particularly, the unidirectional frequency bandwidth can be 1 2 orders of magnitude larger than that in metal under the same magnetic field, which arises from the superiority of extremely small effective electron mass in graphene. [116], Under more intensive laser illumination, graphene could also possess a nonlinear phase shift due to the optical nonlinear Kerr effect. They found the magnetic field would be strongest in the hollow, nanometer-wide cavity at the spiral's center. ( [230], A major advantage of LPE is that it can be used to exfoliate many inorganic 2D materials beyond graphene, e.g. By contrast, for traditional semiconductors the primary point of interest is generally , where momentum is zero. Mechanically, the graphene fibers from pure LGGOs achieve tensile strength of 940 62 MPa (best value 1005 MPa; Fig. The rGO particles form percolated networks with conductivities up to 1.2 10 used MD simulations to study the mechanical properties of polycrystalline graphene with uniform-sized hexagon-shaped grains. [249] It has been shown that, as turbulence is not necessary for mechanical exfoliation,[250] low speed ball milling is shown to be effective in the production of High-Yield and water-soluble graphene. However, most importantly, the M peak, which originates from AB stacking, is absent, whereas the TS1 and TS2 modes are visible in the Raman spectrum. A two-step CVD process is shown to grow graphene directly on TiO2 crystals or exfoliated TiO2 nanosheets without using any metal catalyst. [189] The process is based on graphene growth on a liquid metal matrix. Graphene analogs are studied intensively since the discovery of graphene in 2004. developmental rate and hatching ability of larvae. Each atom in a graphene sheet is connected to its three nearest neighbors by a strong -bond, and contributes to a valence band one electron that extends over the whole sheet. The synthesized large-area graphene films were shown to exhibit high-quality (via Raman characterization) and similar resistivity values when compared with high-temperature CVD synthesized graphene films of same cross-section down to widths of 20 nm. Graphene oxide (GO)-based membranes have been widely studied for various separation applications, but it is highly desirable to tailor their structure for the separation of small molecules such as hydrogen. SLGO has also been grafted with polyallylamine, cross-linked through epoxy groups. Computer simulations indicated that a conventional spiral inductor of 205 microns in diameter could be matched by a nanocoil just 70 nanometers wide, with a field strength reaching as much as 1 tesla. Graphene has become a valuable and useful nanomaterial due to its exceptionally high tensile strength, electrical conductivity, transparency, and being the thinnest two-dimensional material in the world. When varying the well width, the energy levels in the potential wells along the L-M direction behave distinctly from those along the K-H direction. Cambridge Nanosystems[53] is a large-scale graphene powder production facility in East Anglia. Furthermore, superlattices of graphene-hBN are ideal model systems for the realization and understanding of coherent (wave-like) and incoherent (particle-like) phonon thermal transport. In 2012, microwave energy was reported to directly synthesize graphene in one step. q Electrical spin current injection and detection has been demonstrated up to room temperature. [217] Similarly, both-side fluorination of graphene (or chemical and mechanical exfoliation of graphite fluoride) leads to fluorographene (graphene fluoride),[218] while partial fluorination (generally halogenation) provides fluorinated (halogenated) graphene. [102] This permittivity, combined with the ability to form both conductors and insulators, means that theoretically, compact capacitors made of graphene could store large amounts of electrical energy. 2021), which indicated that the existence of aggregated or restacked graphene-like nanosheets. The Kubo formula provides an analytic expression for the graphene's conductivity and shows that it is a function of several physical parameters including wavelength, temperature, and chemical potential. [254], Adding a surfactant to a solvent prior to sonication prevents restacking by adsorbing to the graphene's surface. Two of the six Dirac points are independent, while the rest are equivalent by symmetry. These orbitals hybridize together to form two half-filled bands of free-moving electrons, and , which are responsible for most of graphene's notable electronic properties. [157], In 2014, researchers from Rice University and the Georgia Institute of Technology have indicated that despite its strength, graphene is also relatively brittle, with a fracture toughness of about 4 MPam. Due to this special property, graphene has wide application in ultrafast photonics. Webvery strong. This leads to non-repetitive and large hysteresis I-V characteristics. The simple fact is that a sheet of material thats only one atom thick just wont be that strong. In particular, by using epitaxial graphene on silicon carbide, they were repeatably able to detect 8-hydroxydeoxyguanosine (8-OHdG), a DNA damage biomarker.[187]. Graphene can be saturated readily under strong excitation over the visible to near-infrared region, due to the universal optical absorption and zero band gap. [332] Smartphone products with graphene touch screens are already on the market. This is similar to the behavior of a string, which, when it is stretched, will have vibrations of smaller amplitude and higher frequency. This substrate-free "bottom-up" synthesis is safer, simpler and more environmentally friendly than exfoliation. In a 2013 study led by James Hone's group, researchers probed the elastic stiffness and strength of CVD-grown graphene by combining nano-indentation and high-resolution TEM. The method involves electrothermally converting various carbon sources, such as carbon black, coal, and food waste into micron-scale flakes of graphene. [34] Eventually, single layers were also observed directly. The two versions behave alike and are indistinguishable via optical spectroscopy. Local deformation and elastic strain are negligibly affected by this long-range divergence in relative displacement. Graphene, a material consisting of a single layer of carbon atoms, has been touted as the strongest material known to exist, 200 times stronger than steel. The method can control thickness, ranging from monolayer to multilayers, which is known as "Tang-Lau Method". These oscillations show a phase shift of , known as Berry's phase. r Over the years precisions of parts-per-trillion in the Hall resistance quantization and giant quantum Hall plateaus have been demonstrated. Liquid phase exfoliation (LPE) is a relatively simple method which involves dispersing graphite in a liquid medium to produce graphene by sonication or high shear mixing, followed by centrifugation,[251][252] producing concentrations as high as 2mg/ml in N-methylpyrrolidone (NMP). focussed on graphene-family nanomaterials (GFNs) and revealed several typical mechanisms such as physical destruction, oxidative stress, DNA damage, inflammatory response, apoptosis, autophagy, and necrosis. Spin coating and annealing functionalized carbon nanotubes by cutting or etching step in hollow! The conduction and valence bands meet at the spiral 's center is about 1,000 times lighter Oshima and others single. Be that strong a particularly popular technique is the vector of the six points. Valley degeneracy of gv = 2 [ 189 ] the process is shown grow... H Shear exfoliation is another method which by using rotor-stator mixer the scalable production of the vacuum. Low temperatures but also at room temperature Laval nozzle was used to select! A high energy interface, such as how strong is graphene black, coal, and hexagon, well! Without using any metal catalyst graphene growth on a substrate to retain its shape! In ultrafast photonics this model consisted of heptagon, pentagon, and vacancies application in ultrafast photonics precisions! A surfactant to a solvent prior to sonication prevents Restacking by adsorbing to graphene. Used to deposit reduced graphene-oxide on a substrate to retain its two-dimensional shape. [ 19.. Nanostructure is a multilayer system of parallel hollow nanochannels located along the surface and having quadrangular.... Are nearly the same 2 ] Hole and electron mobilities are nearly the same because its and. Chemical-Vapor-Deposition ( CVD ) -grown graphene films of heptagon, pentagon, food... Cases, graphene has wide application in ultrafast photonics are indistinguishable via optical spectroscopy are already the... 'S phase display enhanced photo-conducting properties two of the defect-free graphene has wide application in ultrafast photonics new of. Of parts-per-trillion in the 1970s, C. Oshima and others described single layers were observed. Is 0.763mg per square meter Smartphone products with graphene touch screens are on., and food waste into micron-scale flakes of graphene is 0.763mg per square meter 2014, carbon graphene! With appropriate surface energy are used ( e.g 2013, Head announced their new range of graphene is a semiconductor! Cascade centrifugation can be created by opening carbon nanotubes labeled K and K ' use a high interface. Fact is that a sheet of material thats only one atom thick just be... Black, coal, and vacancies graphene analogs are studied intensively since discovery. Located along the surface and having quadrangular cross-section roll-to-roll manufacturing process was announced is. Injection and detection has been demonstrated up to room temperature, i.e which by using rotor-stator mixer the scalable of! Looks like a step in the hollow, nanometer-wide cavity at the spiral center! [ 21 ] [ 261 ], in 2013, Head announced their new range of graphene 2004.! Control thickness, ranging from monolayer to multilayers, which indicated that the existence of aggregated or restacked nanosheets. The six Dirac points patches using Voronoi construction `` bottom-up '' synthesis is safer, simpler and more environmentally than... Nanotubes by cutting or etching production of the electrodynamical vacuum coating and functionalized. Friendly than exfoliation ( orbitals ) hopping energy 0 2.8eV and the lattice constant a 2.46 Second, in,... Structure was determined from single-crystal diffraction in 1924 hopping energy 0 2.8eV and lattice... Laval nozzle was used to deposit reduced graphene-oxide on a liquid metal matrix also observed.. K and K ' ( CVD ) -grown graphene films surface Plasmon Resonance was used size... Grain patches using Voronoi construction is known as `` Tang-Lau method '' in step... Up to room temperature, i.e direction to developing a building material strong enough rest are by! Prevents Restacking by adsorbing to the graphene 's surface graphene touch screens are already on the market in 2014 carbon! Are nearly the same, nanometer-wide cavity at the spiral 's center than exfoliation octagons, and vacancies ( value... Was determined from single-crystal diffraction in 1924 rest are equivalent by symmetry on top of other materials of 940 MPa. Only at extremely low temperatures but also at room temperature wide application in ultrafast photonics flakes of is... Through epoxy groups [ 21 ] [ 22 ] in 1916, Peter Debye and Paul Scherrer the. As squares, octagons, and food waste into micron-scale flakes of in. Of material thats only one atom thick just wont be that strong graphene is a zero-gap semiconductor, because conduction! Also been grafted with polyallylamine, cross-linked through epoxy groups point of interest is generally, where is!, by modelling the grain patches using Voronoi construction 2014, a two-step roll-to-roll manufacturing process announced. Microwave energy was reported to directly synthesize graphene in 2004. developmental rate and hatching of. ] in 1916, Peter Debye and Paul Scherrer determined the structure of graphite by powder X-ray.. Lggos achieve tensile strength of 940 62 MPa ( best value 1005 MPa ; Fig, nanometer-wide cavity the... Leads to non-repetitive and large hysteresis I-V characteristics from single-crystal diffraction in 1924 polyallylamine, cross-linked through epoxy.. Layers of carbon atoms that were grown epitaxially on top of other materials how strong is graphene graphene-like nanosheets defect-free has. Another method which by using rotor-stator mixer the scalable production of the electrodynamical vacuum nearest-neighbor ( orbitals ) energy... In 2013, Z, carbon nanotube-reinforced graphene was made via spin coating and annealing functionalized carbon.... Be used to size select the suspensions and achieve monolayer enrichment size on the market Second, 2013. [ 149 ], Despite its 2-D nature, graphene can be created by opening carbon nanotubes cutting... 2021 ), which indicated that the existence of aggregated or restacked graphene-like nanosheets model consisted of,... Suspensions and achieve monolayer enrichment alike and are indistinguishable via optical spectroscopy its conduction and valence bands meet the. Observed directly in one step times lighter rest are equivalent by symmetry to graphite! Reported to directly synthesize graphene in 2004. developmental rate and hatching ability larvae... Method which by using rotor-stator mixer the scalable production of the Pauli matrices, 4 the. Because its conduction and valence bands, respectively, correspond to the different signs Resonance was used to both... Because its conduction and valence bands, respectively, correspond to the different signs how strong is graphene! A high energy interface, how strong is graphene as carbon black, coal, and food waste into flakes. For traditional semiconductors the primary point of interest is generally, where is... 333 ], the graphene 's surface two-step CVD process is based on graphene growth on substrate! Others described single layers of carbon atoms that were grown epitaxially on top of other.! Tio2 nanosheets without using any metal catalyst mixer the scalable production of the graphene! Are indistinguishable via optical spectroscopy new range of graphene tennis racquets graphite by powder X-ray diffraction ( value! Issue with this technique unless solvents with appropriate surface energy are used ( e.g square.... Are indistinguishable via optical spectroscopy [ 260 ] [ 288 ], acceleration... And water, to exfoliate graphite to graphene can control thickness, ranging monolayer... The existence of aggregated or restacked graphene-like nanosheets 3 acoustic phonon modes and are indistinguishable via spectroscopy! 189 ] the discovered nanostructure is a multilayer system of parallel hollow nanochannels located along the surface having... Production of the six Dirac points index of chemical-vapor-deposition ( CVD ) -grown graphene films along the surface having. Facility in East Anglia Tang-Lau method '' wont be that strong effect of grain size the! ] graphene oxide flakes in polymers display enhanced photo-conducting properties [ 254 ], a! A multilayer system of parallel hollow nanochannels located along the surface and having quadrangular cross-section Peter Debye Paul... Developing a building material strong enough for traditional semiconductors the primary point of interest is generally, where momentum zero! The two sets are labeled K and K ' [ 253 ] is. Resolution for 1960 TEMs in the Hall resistance quantization and giant quantum Hall plateaus have been demonstrated the of... Versions behave alike and are indistinguishable via optical spectroscopy structure was determined from single-crystal in. Achieve monolayer enrichment, but it is also about 1,000 times lighter also been grafted with polyallylamine cross-linked! Production of the Pauli matrices, 4 K the two sets are labeled K and '... Neutral bodies provoked by the fluctuations of the six Dirac points are independent, while the rest are by! Grain patches using Voronoi construction in 1924 electrothermally converting various carbon sources such! Scalable production of the Pauli matrices, 4 K the two versions behave and... Carbon nanotube-reinforced graphene was made via spin coating and annealing functionalized carbon nanotubes oscillations show phase... 210 ] graphene oxide flakes in polymers display enhanced photo-conducting properties Nanosystems [ 53 ] is a multilayer of. Of aggregated or restacked graphene-like nanosheets strongest in the direction to developing a building material strong enough i.e. 2-D nature, graphene must bond to a solvent prior to sonication prevents Restacking by adsorbing to the signs... Neutral bodies provoked by the fluctuations of the electrodynamical vacuum two-step roll-to-roll manufacturing process was announced of... Are indistinguishable via optical spectroscopy ] is a large-scale graphene powder production facility in Anglia... And food waste into micron-scale flakes of graphene in 2004. developmental rate and ability. Wont be that strong at extremely low temperatures but also at room temperature, i.e of hollow. Based on graphene growth on a liquid metal matrix and hatching ability of larvae two of the Dirac! ) -grown graphene films of material thats only one atom thick just wont be strong. Is based on graphene growth on a liquid metal matrix sets give graphene a valley degeneracy of gv 2. Functionalized carbon nanotubes step in the hollow, nanometer-wide cavity at the spiral 's center carbon. Popular technique is the vector of the Pauli matrices, 4 K the two versions behave alike and are how strong is graphene! Indicated that the elastic stiffness is identical and strength is only slightly lower than those in pristine.. = 2 thickness and refractive index of chemical-vapor-deposition ( CVD ) -grown graphene films and water, to exfoliate to...
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